21, 22 Additionally, MBIs have been shown to work via changes in specific aspects of psychopathology, such as cognitive biases, affective dysregulation, and interpersonal effectiveness. 6– 11 These outcomes include clinical disorders and symptoms such as anxiety, 8, 12, 13 risk of relapse for depression, 14, 15 current depressive symptoms, 9 stress, 16– 18 medical and well-being outcomes such as chronic pain, 19 quality of life, 14, 20 and psychological or emotional distress. Recent reviews of well-designed, randomized controlled trials comparing mindfulness treatments (primarily MBSR and MBCT) to active control conditions indicate that MBIs are effective in treating a broad range of outcomes among diverse populations. 1 Considering these weaknesses, clinical researchers have increasingly studied MBIs with more rigorous methodology, allowing for select meaningful conclusions to be drawn from the present body of work. 4, 5 Despite the popularity of these interventions, the evidence base is still not fully established, in part because this literature is oversaturated with cross-sectional studies, waitlist-controlled trials, and other methodological shortcomings that limit the strength of conclusions that can be drawn from these studies. The body of literature on mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) has grown exponentially in recent years. 1 These interventions, namely mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) 2 and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), 3 incorporate the essence of Eastern mindfulness practices into Western cognitive-behavioral practice. Nevertheless, mindfulness has spread rapidly in Western psychology research and practice, in large part because of the success of standardized mindfulness-based interventions. Buddhist traditions first explored the concept of mindfulness in broad philosophical terms unfamiliar to most modern readers.
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